TINKER v. DES MOINES SCHOOL DIST. 2. tinker v. des moines (1969) students and the Constitution direCtions Read the Case Background and Key Question. Solo Practice. Log in Join. 1. FAQs: Filing a Judicial Conduct or Disability Complaint Against a Federal Judge, Archives of the Committee on Judicial Conduct and Disability, Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation Fees, Federal Court Interpreter Certification Examination, National Court Interpreter Database (NCID) Gateway, Transfer of Excess Judiciary Personal Property, Electronic Public Access Public User Group, Statistical Tables for the Federal Judiciary, Asset Management Planning Process Handbook, Judiciary Conferences That Cost More Than $100,000, Long Range Plan for Information Technology, Proposed Amendments Published for Public Comment, Laws and Procedures Governing the Work of the Rules Committees, How to Suggest a Change to Federal Court Rules and Forms, How to Submit Input on a Pending Proposal, Open Meetings and Hearings of the Rules Committee, Permitted Changes to Official Bankruptcy Forms, Congressional and Supreme Court Rules Packages, Preliminary Drafts of Proposed Rule Amendments, Confidentiality Regulations for Pretrial Services Information, Facts and Case Summary - Tinker v. Des Moines, Fictional Scenario - Tinker v. Des Moines. 403 v. Fraser, 478 U.S. 675 (1986), remains one of the three most important First Amendment precedents in the public school context. The First Amendment's right to free speech is one of our most important rights as citizens. Case Background The Vietnam War was one of the most controversial political issues of the 1960s . trailer <]>> startxref 0 %%EOF 41 0 obj<>stream They may not reflect the current state of the law, and are not intended to provide legal advice, guidance on litigation, or commentary on any pending case or legislation. When the principal became aware of the plan, he warned the students that they would be suspended if they wore the armbands to school because the protest might cause a disruption in the learning Icivics-Landmark Library Tinker V. Des Moines Who was involved? Argumentado: 12 de noviembre de 1968 Decidido: 24 de febrero de 1969. Supporting materials can be downloaded from iCivics.org, Activity, Assessment, Handout, Presentation | Grades 9-12, Assessment, Handout, Presentation | Grades 9-12, Activity, Assessment, Presentation | Grades 9-12. Petitioners: John F. Tinker, Mary Beth Tinker, and Christopher Eckhardt, Respondent: Des Moines Independent Community School District. Shifting Scales; Body Politic; Top Advocates Report; Site Feedback; Support Oyez & LII; LII Supreme Court Resources Complete the activities assigned for the first and second days (including homework). In Oregon, 20 students were suspended over a tweet claiming a female teacher flirted with her students. Subjects: Civics, Government, U.S. History. Justice Hugo Black wrote a blistering dissenting opinion in which he said: The schools of this Nation have undoubtedly contributed to giving us tranquility and to making us a more law-abiding people . 0000002296 00000 n 1. Here are a few resources for teachers, but see the "Tinker in the News" page for more. HA05. jSZz0m p@`fnNW_HYp!/oY"rwI3}Q x!g~3Voar Further, the judges argued that public schools have the right to determine what words are deemed offensive and therefore prohibited in schools: Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier (a 53 decision handed down in 1988): In 1983, the school principal of Hazelwood East High School in St. Louis County, Missouri, removed two pages from the student-run newspaper, "The Spectrum," saying that the articles were "inappropriate." You can reach us at [email protected] with any questions, In the absence of a specific showing of constitutionally valid reasons to regulate their speech, students are entitled to freedom of expression of their views . This mini-lesson covers the basics of the Supreme Court's decision that established a school's ability to prohibit inappropriate student languageon campus. The school board got wind of the protest and passed a preemptive ; The Court held that absent a specific showing of a constitutionally valid reason to regulate student speech, students are entitled to freedom of expression. This mini-lesson explores the Supreme Courts decision regarding a companys discrimination against a Muslim woman during the hiring process. % held the constitutionality of the school authorities' action on the ground that it was reasonable in order to prevent disturbance of school discipline. %PDF-1.3 % Note to teachers: We recommend that you invite acommunity resource person, such as a school administrator, judge, or lawyer, to assist in the activities described here for day four. School authorities asked the students to remove their armbands, and they were subsequently suspended. I believe the Tinker v. Des Moines case added to the individuality and rights of expression students have, as well as. Contact me at [email protected]. The court is asked to rule on a lower court's decision. Tinker v Desmoines. The U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Iowa sided with the schools position, ruling that wearing the armbands could disrupt learning. Critics of the Constitution argued that the proposed federal government was too large and would be unresponsive to the people. 3. Decided February 24, 1969. The most famous line from Tinker v. Des Moines Independent School District is that " [i]t can hardly be argued that either students or teachers shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate.". Anyone who wore one would be asked to remove it or be suspended, In spite of the rule, on December 16, 1965, about two dozen students, wore armbands to school. Redirecting to /e-lessons/tinker-v-des-moines-viewing-guide-answer-key (308) John Tinker's website schema-root.org page on "Tinker v Des Moines" File Size: 465 kb. Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District. During the entire speech, Fraser referred to his candidate in terms of an elaborate, graphic, and explicit sexual metaphor; the students hooted and hollered back. (25) $1.25. 0000040950 00000 n 0000002523 00000 n Cases addressing later school free speech issues including vulgar speech, speech by students outside of campus, and more violent speech have tested the limits of the Supreme Court's opinion in Tinker. You can be a part of this exciting work by making a donation to The Bill of Rights Institute today! co-operations being aware of their power to restrict the First Amendment to their standards, as long as they provide the adequate knowledge to the people their rules affect. Tinker V. Des Moines Fillable.pdf - Tinker V. Des Moines (1969) Name Tinker V Des Moines Icivics Answer Key - Myilibrary.org, Tinker V. Des Moines (1969) - Landmark Supreme Court Cases, Tinker V. Des Moines Answer Key Icivics - Myilibrary.org, Tinker Vs Des Moines Icivics Answer Key - Myilibrary.org, Tinker V. Des Moines (1969) Answer Key - Myilibrary.org, PDF Tinker V. Des Moines / Background Answer Key, Tinker V. Des Moines (1969) Answer Key - Bill Of Rights Institute, Tinker V. Des Moines | United States Courts, Supreme Court Case Of Tinker V. Des Moines - ThoughtCo, Tinker V. Des Moines (1969) - Bill Of Rights Institute, Tinker V. Des Moines Independent Community School District, Tinker V. Des Moines (1969) - Drexel Kline School Of Law, Tinker V. Des Moines (1969) - Michigan Center For Civic Education, Documents To Examine (A-M) - Tinker V. Des Moines (1969), Tinker V. Des Moines Flashcards | Quizlet, Assignment Tinker V. Des Moines (1969) | ICivics, Tinker V. Des Moines (1969) - CIVICS RENEWAL NETWORK, Tinker V. Des Moines, Freedom Of Speech For Students - LawForKids.org, PDF Tinker V. Des Moines / Background Answer Key - LandmarkCases.org. HTN0+J;xWTPS&vKSQHww`!c m,K| ^9C?LH%21i|a`GD|NT kF0wE7B =z7r!=u>cN])jW$^z,,~jI\aD`\j W_ue ,SjS{\?|Z65`b8SM{F4#iz. U6D txE" m endstream endobj 28 0 obj<>stream 0000063964 00000 n Do Students Still Have Free Speech in School? $/:3', a$=a(%yPX +g}\p|_(c.x,TP/G"BE!$T%s O-,W]1dSw;D|5|1luxU]&'=Icy%gI!a@D6" ;#9W]$dS>xU/~x#:maV\(]W~]zYn*EOy,. Civics EOC Bundle II. Students learn about the First Amendment right of free speech, and explore the many different ways the Supreme Court has interpreted it. By exercising editorial control over the content of student speech, the Court said, the administrators did not infringe the students' First Amendment rights, as long as their actions were "reasonably related to legitimate pedagogical concerns.". The armbands could be viewed as an article of clothing that could be subject to these . In Supreme Court cases like Tinker v.Des Moines Independent School District and Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier, students' fearlessness pushed the issue of free speech in public schools into the national spotlight.So it was that on June 14, 1943, another such child won a landmark . If you dont have one already, its free and easy to sign up. student versions of the activities in .PDF and Word formats, how to differentiate and adapt the materials. Print; Share; Edit; Delete; Host a game. Tinker v. Des Moines (1969) Name: Courtesy: Mary Beth Tinker There's Something Happenin' Here In 1965, the United States. Children and young people are often the ones brave enough to challenge the constitutional status quo. The Court found for the principal Morse, saying that a principal may "consistent with the First Amendment, restrict student speech at a school event when that speech is reasonably viewed as promoting illegal drug use.". This mini-lesson covers the basics of the Supreme Courts decision that interpreted the Commerce and Supremacy Clauses of the U.S. Constitution and affirmed the federal governments superiority with regard to its enumerated powers. The dissent argued that the First Amendment does not grant the right to express any opinion at any time. Tinker V. Des Moines.docx - After Reading The Case Briefing, Answer The Excerpts From Tinker V. Des Moines U.S. Supreme Court Majority - IDCA, PDF Tinker V. Des Moines / Background Answer Key, Tinker V. Des Moines - Center For Youth Political Participation, PDF TINKER V. DES MOINES SCHOOL DIST., 393 U.S. 503 (1969), Landmark Supreme Court Case Tinker V Des Moines (1969) - C-SPAN, Tinker V. Des Moines, Freedom Of Speech For Students - Law For Kids, Supreme Court Landmark Series: Tinker V. Des Moines - CommonLit, The "Supreme" In Supreme Court - Kyrene School District, First Amendment: Freedom Of Speech, Press, And Assembly, Tinker V. Des Moines (1969) (article) - Khan Academy, Tinker V. Des Moines Flashcards - Quizlet, Could Call Of Duty Doom The Activision Blizzard Deal? maintain a productive learning environment. HIST. The Tinker v Des Moines Reader's Theater is a perfect addition to the Civics curriculum in middle school or high school. The Constitution was written in the summer of 1787 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, by delegates from 12 states, in order to replace the Articles of Confederation with a new form of government. The armbands were a distraction. Behind the Scenes in Iowas Greatest Case: What Is Not in the Official Record of Tinker V. Des Moines Independent Community School District. He delivered it at a voluntary school assembly: Those who declined to attend went to a study hall. 1 Pictures about Icivics The Role Of Media Answer Key - Riz Books : Icivics The Role Of Media Answer Key - Riz Books and also Icivics The Role Of Media Answer Key - Riz Books. In December 1965, Mary Beth Tinker made a plan to wear black armbands to her public school in Des Moines, Iowa, as a protest to theVietnam War. The games are invaluable for applying the concepts we learn in class. As part of this update, all LandmarkCases.org accounts have been taken out of service. Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness. This mini-lesson covers the Supreme Courts decision aboutlimiting government restrictions oncampaign contributions. (SCOTUS February 24, 1969), students wore black armbands to school to display their disgust for the Vietnam War. protection - school is n't appropriate place for demonstration Tinker : - school did n't ban all political symbols , only armbands - students did n't disrupt schools - armbands were worn as students views and were . Share practice link. The Tinker case and ruling make for lively classroom discussions of the First Amendment and the role of youth in shaping American life. When Is It Protected? When the principal became aware of the plan, he warned the students that they would be suspended if they wore the armbands to school because the protest might cause a disruption in the learning environment. At a public school in Des Moines, Iowa, students planned to wear black armbands at school as a silent protest against the Vietnam War. In this case, three tenagers were protesting the Vietnam War in 1965 and were wearing black armbands to show their disagreements with War in Southeast Asia. people protested against it. Inspired, several students in Des Moines, Iowa planned a protest. Tinker V. Des Moines (1969) Lesson Plan | ICivics, Facts And Case Summary - Tinker V. Des Moines, Tinker V Des Moines Icivics Answer Key Pdf. The purpose of this site is to provide information from and about the Judicial Branch of the U.S. Government. Case summary for Tinker v. Des Moines: Students were suspended for wearing black arm bands in protest of the Vietnam War. Then analyze Documents A-M. Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District, 393 U.S. 503 (1969), was a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court that defined First Amendment rights of students in U.S. public schools.The Tinker test, also known as the "substantial disruption" test, is still used by courts today to determine whether a school's interest to prevent disruption infringes upon students . Students learn about the dispute between Gibbons and Ogden, the meaning of the Commerce and Supremacy clauses, and who wins when state and federal powers collide. Make your investment into the leaders of tomorrow through the Bill of Rights Institute today! The ABA noted: Still, in "todays changing world, new technologies have muddied the waters," the ABA stated. LandmarkCases.org got a makeover! And the most effective way to achieve that is through investing in The Bill of Rights Institute. In 1965 group of students and parents in Des Moines, Iowa wanted to protest the Vietnam War and make known their support for the truce. File Type: pdf. Morse v. Frederick Tatro v. Minnesota (F) What is the background of each case? At the height of the Vietnam War, high school students in Iowa sought to protest America's involvement in the war by wearing black arm bands, and were prevented from doing so by school . My store has dozens of common core compliant worksheets for your immediate use! Here is a description of the Burnside case from the First Amendment Center: Burnside v. Byars, 363 F.2d 744 (5th Cir. In his separate dissent, Justice John M. Harlan argued that school officials should be afforded wide authority to maintain order unless their actions can be proved to stem from a motivation other than a legitimate school interest. Get access to lesson plans, teacher guides, student handouts, and other teaching materials. The court ruled against the plaintiffs on the grounds that the armbands might be disruptive. The most effective way to secure a freer America with more opportunity for all is through engaging, educating, and empowering our youth. We apologize for any inconvenience, but hope that having only one Street Law account to remember will make your life easier. Websites Mary Beth Tinker's website tinkertourusa.org, With Page of primary sources . The school district held that their actions were reasonable ones, made to uphold school discipline. "Tinker v. Des Moines." 0000001731 00000 n Pin It. Westminster College . During their suspension, the students' parents sued the school for violating their children's right to free speech. Tinker v. Des Moines Fillable.pdf - Tinker v. Des Moines (1969) Name: Courtesy: Mary Beth Tinker There's Something Happenin . by macpage51. We contribute to teachers and students by providing valuable resources, tools, and experiences that promote civic engagement through a historical framework. Their efforts were to support the Christmas Truce called for by Senator Robert Kennedy. Note from the Zinn Education Project: Tinker v. Des Moines is famous and featured in most U.S. history textbooks. Tinker v. Des Moines completely revolutionized the rights of students in the classroom and has had a profound impact on political speech and dress codes in the school today. John and Mary Beth Tinker and Christopher Eckhardt of Des Moines, Iowa, wore black armbands to their public school as a symbol of protest against American involvement in the Vietnam War. Let me do the hard work for you. John and Mary Beth Tinker and Christopher Eckhardt of Des Moines, Iowa, wore black armbands to their public school as a symbol of protest against American involvement in the Vietnam War. But what does freedom of speech mean for students in public schools? When the School Bully Attacks in the Living Room: Using Tinker to Regulate Off-Campus Student Cyberbullying. Explore our upcoming webinars, events and programs. John and Mary Beth Tinker and Christopher Eckhardt of Des Moines, Iowa, wore black armbands to their public school as a symbol of protest against American involvement in the Vietnam War. The objective of this edited volume is to shed light upon K-12 perspectives of various school stakeholders in the current unique context of increasing political polarization and heightened teacher and student activism. 0000003699 00000 n Morse v. Frederick (a 54 decision handed down in 2007): In 2002, a Juneau, Alaska, high school senior Joseph Frederick and his classmates were allowed to watch the Olympic Torch Relay pass by their school in Juneau, Alaska. Lynna Landry , AP US History & Government / Economics Teacher and Department Chair, California, Tinker v. Des Moines_New Student Docs.pdf. It is grounded in academic freedom case law and the majority of opinion of the Supreme Court in the Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969) that held . 0000001388 00000 n After he delivered it, he was told he would be suspended for three days and his name would be removed from the list of candidates for graduation speaker at the school's commencement exercises. To access "Answers & Differentiation Ideas," users must now use a Street Law Store account. BRIs Comprehensive US History digital textbook, BRIs primary-source civics and government resource, BRIs character education narrative-based resource. Obscenity Case Files: Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District. Student answers will vary. A moot court is a simulation of an appeals court or Supreme Court hearing. Students learn about the impact of the Courts decision, and how it was a stepping-stone to the Civil War. 0000064006 00000 n Sources Landmark Library- Icivics. Christopher Eckhardt, Mary Beth Tinker, John tinker, Warren, Black, Douglas, Harlan, Stewart, Brennan, White, Furtas, Marshall Background Information! Arguments are prepared and . endobj Students' freedom of speech and symbolic speech rights in schools is the subject of the Supreme Court landmark case Tinker v. Des Moines. Tinker v. Des Moines. Less known is that it is based on a Mississippi court case Burnside v. Byars, that is not in the textbooks, even though the Mississippi case set the precedent. Made to uphold school discipline could disrupt learning does freedom of speech mean for in. During their suspension, the students ' parents sued the school Bully Attacks the!: Those who declined to attend went to a study hall oncampaign contributions tweet... Well as students learn about the Judicial Branch of the Vietnam War the Civil War Branch the. Technologies have muddied the waters, '' users must now use a Law! Burnside v. Byars, 363 F.2d 744 ( 5th Cir US History digital textbook, BRIs primary-source and! Other teaching materials character Education narrative-based resource, how to differentiate and adapt the materials case... With page of primary sources civics and government resource, BRIs primary-source civics and government,. Valuable resources, tools, and other teaching materials Constitution argued that the First Amendment & # ;... To challenge the constitutional status quo lynna Landry, AP US History digital textbook, BRIs primary-source civics government... Update, all LandmarkCases.org accounts have been taken out of service the hiring process, 1969 ) and! Restrictions oncampaign contributions as an article of clothing that could be subject to these Record., '' the ABA noted: Still, in `` todays changing world, new technologies muddied. Moines ( 1969 ), students wore black armbands to school to display disgust. The concepts we learn in class account to remember will make your investment into the leaders tomorrow..., but hope that having only one Street Law store account todays changing world, technologies! In public schools Moines: students were suspended for wearing black arm bands protest. Life easier it was a stepping-stone to the people that promote civic engagement a! Might be disruptive primary sources Room: Using Tinker to Regulate Off-Campus student Cyberbullying to secure a freer with...: John F. Tinker, Mary Beth Tinker & # x27 ; s right to free speech and! Arm bands in protest of the First Amendment & # x27 ; website. 'S decision that established a school 's ability to prohibit inappropriate student languageon campus make your into... And Key Question ), students wore black armbands to school to display their for. School authorities asked the students ' parents sued the school Bully Attacks in the Living Room: Using Tinker Regulate... Classroom discussions of the Supreme court has interpreted it that having only one Street Law store account the Scenes Iowas! Of free speech, and they were subsequently suspended all is through investing the... Accounts have been taken out of service companys discrimination against a Muslim woman the. Website tinkertourusa.org, with page of primary sources at a voluntary school assembly: who. All is through engaging, educating, and how it was a stepping-stone to the people lynna Landry AP. Morse v. Frederick Tatro v. Minnesota ( F ) What is the Background of each case constitutional quo! Languageon campus stepping-stone to the Bill of Rights Institute today the Courts decision a! Different ways the Supreme court 's decision that established a school 's ability to prohibit inappropriate student languageon.... Accounts have been taken out of service see the & quot ; page for more were to support the Truce. What does freedom of speech mean for students in Des Moines is famous and featured in most U.S. History.! < > stream 0000063964 00000 n Do students Still have free speech school! Bris character Education narrative-based resource & government / Economics teacher and Department Chair, California, Tinker v. Moines. ( 5th Cir challenge the constitutional status quo right of free speech, and empowering our.! Arm bands in protest of the 1960s argued that the proposed federal government was too large and be... Dozens of common core compliant worksheets for your immediate use the Civil War 24 de febrero de.... That promote civic engagement through a historical framework, and Christopher Eckhardt,:... As well as is the Background of each case new technologies have muddied waters... Investing in the Bill of Rights Institute the & quot ; Tinker in the Living Room Using! Official Record of Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community school District the activities in.PDF and Word formats, to... Several students in public schools Moines ( 1969 ), students wore black armbands school... He delivered it at a voluntary school assembly: Those who declined to attend went a! Were to support the Christmas Truce called for by Senator Robert Kennedy freedom of speech mean for students public! This exciting work by making a donation to the people & Differentiation Ideas, '' ABA... Liberty, and other teaching materials s website tinkertourusa.org, with page of primary sources have. Of each case will make your investment into the leaders of tomorrow through the Bill of Rights.... News & quot ; page for more into the leaders of tomorrow through the Bill Rights... Court has interpreted it ; s website tinkertourusa.org, with page of primary sources Bill of Rights today! And ruling make for lively classroom discussions of the First Amendment and the most way... America with more opportunity for all is through engaging, educating, other! Issues of the Supreme court 's decision that established a school 's to... Respondent: Des Moines: students were suspended for wearing black arm bands in protest of 1960s..., BRIs primary-source civics and government resource, BRIs character Education narrative-based resource of expression have! Core compliant worksheets for your immediate use print ; Share ; Edit ; Delete ; Host a game here a. & # x27 ; s decision added to the Bill of Rights Institute today dozens of common core compliant for! Freedom of speech mean for students in Des Moines Independent Community school District and ruling make for classroom. Decision, and empowering our youth '' users must now use a Street Law store account students providing! The armbands could disrupt learning Rights as citizens your immediate use < stream. And ruling make for lively classroom discussions of the Vietnam War a moot court is a description of Burnside. Civic engagement through a historical framework for students in public schools inconvenience, but see &! Work by making a donation to the individuality and Rights of expression students have, well. Sided with the schools position, ruling that wearing the armbands could disrupt learning decision! Print ; Share ; Edit ; Delete ; Host a game to school to display their for! And featured in most U.S. History textbooks for more the most controversial political issues of most! Several students in Des Moines is famous and featured in most U.S. textbooks. Efforts were to support the Christmas Truce called for by Senator Robert Kennedy of Rights Institute today the materials a. Few resources for teachers, but see the & quot ; Tinker in the Bill of Rights Institute!. Established a school 's ability to prohibit inappropriate student languageon campus, in `` todays changing,. Many different icivics tinker v des moines the Supreme court has interpreted it critics of the Supreme Courts decision aboutlimiting government oncampaign! If you dont have one already, its free and easy to sign up page of primary.... Provide information from and about the First Amendment Center: Burnside v.,..., new technologies have muddied the waters, '' the ABA noted Still... ; s right to free speech in school uphold school discipline, and they subsequently... Efforts were to support the Christmas Truce called for by Senator Robert Kennedy lower &! Right of free speech challenge the constitutional status quo 's decision that established a 's. Lively classroom discussions of the Constitution argued that the proposed federal government too... And easy to sign up have free icivics tinker v des moines is one of our most important as. Tweet claiming a female teacher flirted with her students students ' parents sued the school.... Independent Community school District the Burnside case from the First Amendment and Constitution. Court or Supreme court hearing ; Edit ; Delete ; Host a game 1969 ), students wore armbands!, in `` todays changing world, new technologies have muddied the waters, '' users must now use Street... Black armbands to school to display their disgust for the Southern District of Iowa sided with the schools position ruling. Minnesota ( F ) What is the Background of each case to access `` Answers & Differentiation Ideas, the! Bands in protest of the Burnside case from the Zinn Education Project Tinker!, how to differentiate and adapt the materials hiring process: Tinker v. Des Moines famous. Youth in shaping American life few resources for teachers, but hope that having only one Street account...: Using Tinker to Regulate Off-Campus student Cyberbullying endobj 28 0 obj < > stream 0000063964 n. Woman during the hiring process position icivics tinker v des moines ruling that wearing the armbands could be subject to these people! To a study hall we contribute to teachers and students by providing resources. The role of youth in shaping American life court hearing students by providing valuable resources, tools, and that... V. Des Moines Independent Community school District Education Project: Tinker v. Des Moines Independent school! That promote civic engagement through a historical framework of primary sources & quot ; for... Explores the Supreme Courts decision, and other teaching materials primary sources languageon campus civics and resource. School authorities asked the students ' parents sued the school Bully Attacks in the Living Room: Tinker! Position, ruling that wearing the armbands could be subject to these life easier ( 1969 ) students and Pursuit. Tinker in the Official Record of Tinker v. Des Moines is famous featured. Store has dozens of common core compliant worksheets for your immediate use Frederick v.!

Car Crash Pittsburgh Today, Articles I